NGO Another Way (Stichting Bakens Verzet), 1018 AM Amsterdam, Netherlands.

 

Edition 03: 24 May, 2010.

Edition 04 : 22 December, 2013.

 

01. E-course : Diploma in Integrated Development (Dip. Int. Dev)

 

Quarter 1.

 

 

SECTION A :  DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS.

 

 

Study value : 04 points out of 18.

Indicative study time: 112 hours out of 504.

 

Study points are awarded only after the consolidated exam for Section A : Development Problems has been passed.

 


 

First block : Poverty and quality of life.

 

Study value : 02 points out of 18.

Indicative study time: 57 hours out of 504.

 

Study points are awarded only after the consolidated exam for Section A : Development Problems has been passed.

 


 

First block : Poverty and quality of life.  [57 hours]

 

First Block : Section 1. Analysis of the causes of poverty. [26.50 hours]

First Block : Section 2. Services needed for a good quality of life. [26.50 hours]

First Block : Exam. [ 4 hours each attempt]

 


 

First Block :  Section 2. Services needed for a good quality of life. [26.50 hours]

 

Part 1 : Introduction to the services needed for a good quality of life. [06.50 hours]

 

01. The bases of a good quality of life.

02. Physical safety.

03. Shelter.

04. Drinking water.

05. Typical drawing of a well/borehole area.

06. Typical water point.

07. Food security.

08. Health and sanitation.

09. Complete system for waste recycling.

10. Dry composting toilet.

11. Education for all.

12. Work for all.

13. Social security system.

 


 

Part 1 : Introduction to the services needed for a good quality of life. [06.50 hours]

 

04. Drinking water. (At least 30 minutes)

 

Look at slide :

 

14. Drinking water. 

 

Lack of water and quality of water.

 

According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)  «Reasonable access is defined as the availability of at least 20 litres a person per day from a source within one kilometre of the user’s dwelling” Report on Human Development for 2007/2008, p. 371.  Some experts think that a minimum of 50 litres per person is needed. The report of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) The state of World Population 2001, chapter 2, cites as references : Peter Gleick, 1996. «Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs.» Water International 21: 83-92; and Peter Gleick, 1999. « The Human Right to Water. » Water Policy 1(5): 487-503.

 

We are talking here of domestic consumption. Human water needs vary according to climatic conditions between 3 litres and 5 litres per day. See Gleick, (references above). Since a large part of  our water needs reaches us through the foods we eat  (tomatoes - 95% water ; spinach 91% ; milk 90% ; apples  85% etc) actual drinking water requirements are usually limited to 2--3 litres per person per day, plus water for washing foods eaten raw. Obviously, people who sweat a lot while doing hard work, like football players during a match, or those who have to endure hot weather, will need more water. A person weighing  70kg can sweat up to 4-6 litres per day.

 

By way of comparison, water consumption in Canada is to the order of 600 litres per person per day, and that of the United States 567 litres per person per day.  Source  (in French only) : Économie d’Eau, 2008.

 

What kind of water?

 

In some industrialised countries ALL the water distributed to homes is drinking water. This means that water used to flush toilets and for use in bathrooms, and even water used for gardens, is drinking water. Apart from water wastage in itself, this means that most of the DRINKING water distributed is wasted. Fortunately, double systems are now being introduced where drinking water is separated from water for general use.

 

1.Sanitation

 

Traditional water toilets (WC) in industrialised countries use 75 litres per person per day, and more. Fortunately there are sanitation systems which need very little water, such as the dry composting toilet systems recommended in the Model for Integrated Development Projects.

 

However, according to Gleick P., «Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs.» Water International 21: 83-92 (1996) “while effective disposal of human wastes can be accomplished with little or no water when necessary, a minimum of 20 liters per person per day is recommended here to account for the maximum benefits of combining waste disposal and related hygiene, and to permit for cultural and societal preferences.” (p.85)

 

2. Personal hygiene (washing).

 

A reasoned average for personal hygiene (including baths and showers) in industrialised countries would be about 70 litres per person per day. One shower lasting 5 minutes in the Netherlands uses +/- 40 litres.  Naturally there are individuals who waste enormous amounts of (drinking !) water for their personal requirements. Little information is available on the use of water for personal hygiene in poor countries. Peter Gleick (see above) thinks that some 5-15 litres are needed for a «simple » wash ; and 15-25 litres for a shower. He arrives at an average of 15 litres of water per person per day. This water does not have to be drinking water.  

 

3. Food preparation (in the kitchen).

 

Calculations of the amount of water needed for the preparation (in the kitchen) of foods in industrialised countries are frustrated by the development of industrial foods (products which are washed, pre-packed; products which are pre-cooked etc) which has led to a revolution in the kitchens of most people in rich countries. For poor countries, Peter Gleick (see above) arrives at a requirement of 10 litres per person per day.

 

Two qualities of water can be used for the preparation of foods. Water used for washing foods which are to be consumed raw must be potable. Drinking water is not needed to wash foods which are to be (well) cooked. However, to avoid confusion between the two applications, the use of clean drinking water is recommended for the washing of all foods, provided enough drinking water is available for the purpose.

 

Obviously water necessary for the cultivation of foods is excluded from the above calculations.

 

4. Washing dishes.

 

In poor countries, dish-washing and the washing of kitchen implements is an important problem which is often forgotten. It is also overlooked by Gleick.

 

In industrialised countries dish-washing machines are often used, with a water consumption of up to 30 litres per person per day. Washing dishes by hand will not usually exceed that amount of water.

 

In poor countries it is critical from the point of view of hygiene that all containers, kitchen implements, and dishes be kept very clean. What is the point of supplying clean drinking water to homes if the containers and the dishes are contaminated ? Users therefore have the choice : either to boil water for dish-washing or, assuming enough drinking water is available, use drinking water.  An amount of 5-10 litres per person per day is probably enough for this purpose.

 

5. Domestic cleaning.

 

This is another application which is often forgotten. Especially, where applicable, bathrooms (with or without toilet), kitchens, windows, floors, door-handles and other objects small children come into contact with. Drinking water is not needed for this purpose, but should be used if available where there are small children. About 5 litres per person per day should be allowed for this purpose. Special attention should be paid to objects subject to direct physical human contact such as floors (especially where there are small children), door handles, hand-grips, plugs, switches, and toilet seats.  

 

6. Washing of clothes.

 

In industrialised countries most clothes are washed in washing machines.  These machines have become more efficient over time. Water consumption is to the order of 50 litres per wash. Supposing an average of 3 washes per week, consumption is about 150 litres per week, or  about 30 litres per person in a family of five, or about 5-10 litres per person per day.   

 

The situation in developing countries is confused. Many women go once or twice a week to an open source of water, for example a river, to wash their clothes. The water flows ..........at least that is to be hoped.

 

Supposing the women were to enjoy dedicated water sources, and that they wash their clothes one a week, and that they need 50 litres for washing and 50 litres for rinsing, total consumption would be 100 litres per week, or 20 litres per person in a family of five. Consequently, about 5 litres per person per day should be reserved. Drinking water is not required for this application.

 

Avoid water wastage. 

 

Integrated development projects cover the recycling of grey water.  Through the composting of faeces and the systematic recycling of urine, 100%  (less, of course, any loss through sweat) of the water drunk is recycled together with water used for anal cleansing, personal hygiene and toilet use and for the cleaning of toilets, urinals and bidets.

 

1. Research.

 

On one page, make an analysis of the quantities of water (per person) under points 2-6 above which would be recoverable. How would you recover them ?  

 

Keep drinking water clean. 

 

In point 4 above, the critical need to keep recipients and dishes well-cleaned was stressed. Otherwise, what would be the purpose of getting clean drinking water to homes only to conserve it in contaminated containers ?

 

2. Research.

 

On one page, make notes on how you would solve this problem..

 

Back-up for the supply of clean drinking water. 

 

Integrated development projects under the Model provide for three levels of water supply :

 

- At a water point close to users’ homes. (Drinking water). Solar water pumping system.

- At wells and boreholes supplying the drinking water. (Drinking water). Hand pump systems for back-up service.

- Rainwater harvesting. (Non-potable). Direct harvesting from the roofs of homes. Possibility of  treatment to drinking water level through the use of  locally built systems using Moringa diaphragms and sand filters).

 

3. Opinion.

 

On one page, write a paragraph explaining the purpose of the water distribution system and how the three levels are integrated with each other.

 

Fair distribution of available drinking water.  

 

The objective of the water system is to guarantee that ALL INHABITANTS IN EACH PROJECT AREA WITHOUT EXCLUSION have access to the clean drinking water they need.

 

The drinking water systems are designed so that there is enough drinking water for all.

 

4. Opinion.

 

On one page, explain how would you stop some community members from  taking  more than their fair share of drinking water at the cost of others who might receive less or nothing at all ?

 

5. Opinion.

 

On one page, make notes on how, in case of lack of water due to  a defect in the solar pumping system serving your local water tank, or because of bad weather, or for some other cause, would you guarantee the equitable distribution of clean drinking water for all ?.

 

Elimination of the need to fetch water.  

 

Elimination of the need to search for water is one of the advantages women and girls would have where a local source of drinking water is available near their homes.

 

6. Research.

 

On one page make a list of other probable or possible advantages women and girls would have and give a short description of them. Your list should contain at least 5 items.

 

Rain water harvesting.  

 

One of the water resources that projects under the Model would promote, is the harvesting of rainwater.

 

7. Research.

 

On one page describe what rainwater harvesting is. How is it done ? (Brief notes with two or three sentences are enough)

 

Resource: Thomas T.H. et Martinson D.B., Roofwater Harvesting : A handbook for Practioners,  International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC), Technical Paper 49, Delft, 2007.  This resource offers indications of efficiency for different roof materials. You do not need to take this into consideration as gypsum-composite based layers will usually be applied to roofs in project areas to ensure a rate of collection of up to 100%.

 

8. Research.

 

On one page describe the hydrological features of your chosen area. How much rain falls there ? In which seasons ?

 

Maintenance of drinking water structures.  

 

The maintenance of drinking water structures is a basic problem for drinking water projects in developing countries. One of the most important factors has been the unreliability of the technologies used, often chosen for political, ideological,  reasons and favouritism (corruption) . Hand pump technologies have been a good example of this over the years.

 

In the report Financing Water for All,  Winpenny J., World Panel on Financing Water Infrastructure , presented at the Earth Summit at Johannesburg, in March 2003, ISBN 92-95017-01-3,  in connection with the Millennium Development Goals 5, the authors make the following observations:

 

“It is also true that some aspects of this sector are unglamorous, practically invisible in electoral terms. With the mass of people not serviced politically weak or disempowered, it is tempting to postpone spending on maintenance and periodic replacements, likewise on investments with a long gestation period. Nor is water a priority in the use of resources saved from debt relief. Few Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers give priority to water, and some omit it completely.” (p. 9)

 

“There is little political will to raise tariffs, even to cover O & M [ Organisation and Maintenance] expenses, despite the possibility of designing tariff structures that cushion the water bills of the poorest and the use of the social security budget to subsidise deserving cases. Many utilities are trapped in a vicious spiral of weak finances, under-spending on essential maintenance, declining service quality and resistance to pay more for a poor service. This process is particularly evident in public irrigation agencies, where cost recovery is nearly everywhere very low, partly related to the depressing effect on prices from farm subsidies in the OECD countries.” (p.10)

 

Exclusion of  irrigation from the projects.  

 

The Model for local integrated development projects avoids recourse to large-scale irrigation projects. Integral recycling of household water is alone sufficient for the production of most of the food needed for the survival of the families. Large-scale irrigation using artesian water can lead to a lowering of the ground water table, as in Asia. Large-scale irrigation from rivers and lakes necessarily brings a reduction in water availability in riparian areas further down. Irrigation is often used  to supply water to those with the means to pay for it, eventually with substantial subsidies, instead of supplying the most needy families. It creates complex management structures which are open to corruption. Above all, it is centralised and, because of lack of maintenance of the structures, inefficient.

 

Intelligent harvesting of rain-water for local agricultural production is another thing, on condition that the structures in question are guaranteed free from all possibility of infestation, cause of some of the diseases integrated projects are trying to eliminate. Rainwater harvesting is carried out at individual, cooperative or community level. Its purpose is to allow a limited extension to growing periods, to benefit the food security of the populations.

 

Hot water.

 

Hot water is not seen as a priority issue by the Model. However, voluntary interest-free purchasing cooperatives can be formed to buy thermal solar home systems to encourage on-going installation of solar water-heating systems in individual homes. In principle, part of the systems could be produced locally. This part, together with installation and maintenance services, would take place within the framework of the local money systems set up in each project area.

 



 First  block : Poverty and quality of life.


Index : Diploma in Integrated Development  (Dip.Int.Dev)

 List of key words.

 List of references.

  Course chart.


 Courses available.

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